Four Tenets: Success in Overcoming a Crisis – Similarities between Winston Churchill during World War II and University Leadership During the COVID-19 Pandemic Jason M. Graves LD 850 Leadership Integrated Capstone Granite State College Summer 2021 LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 1 Table of Contents Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. ......2 Abstract................................................................................................................... .................3 Introduction................................................................................................................. .............4 Literature Review.....................................................................................................................6 Winston Churchill -World War II……………………………………………………………6 Covid-19 Pandemic..................................................................................................................8 Communication.......................................................................................................................11 Churchill Communication efforts during World War II…………………………….11 Universities Communication Efforts During the Pandemic…………………………13 Collaboration………………………………………………………………………………...16 Churchill’s Collaboration During World War II…………………………………….16 Universities COVID-19 Collaboration ……………………………………………...17 Partnerships.............................................................................................................................19 Churchill’s Partnerships……………………………………………………………..19 University Covid-19 Partnerships…………………………………………………...20 Technology.............................................................................................................................22 Churchill’s World War II Technology………………………………………………22 Universities Technology during COVID-19……………………………………….. 24 Methods...................................................................................................................... .............26 Results.....................................................................................................................................27 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................32 References ..............................................................................................................................34 LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 2 Acknowledgments I would like to thank my family, Jenn, Evan, and others who supported me through my years of schooling. Thank you to all those I have worked with; I have learned a lot about leading through every encounter. Thanks to all those instructors for their patience through these classes and Caroline at the UNH writing center. LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 3 Abstract Being prepared for a crisis is important for any leader. Although time passes, the fundamentals of strong leadership often remain routed in specific principles. This paper sets out to illustrate how modern university leadership, specifically at the University of New Hampshire, navigated the COVID-19 pandemic using similar strategies to that of Winston Churchill during World War II. Four tenets are themes throughout the paper which are: communication, collaboration, partnership and the advancement of technology. Leaders can often look to the past to prepare for crises in the future. Keywords: Leadership, Communication, Partnerships, Technology, Collaboration LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 4 Introduction Winston Churchill demonstrated many leadership tenets that led to several significant successful outcomes during the crises of World War II. Elements of his leadership can be traced in the actions of higher education administrators who were successful in leading their institutions through the COVID-19 pandemic. Many challenges Churchill encountered during World War II were similar to the challenges university administrators encountered during the pandemic. These challenges included how best to communicate to the masses, collaborate across disciplines, partner with allies and advance technology. Although the battles of World War II and the COVID-19 pandemic were different because of the enemy, the death tolls were equal in scale. On January 21, 2021, the death toll from COVID-19 in the United States exceeded 405,399 Americans, more than the American lives lost in World War II. (Sont & Feibel, 2021). Overcoming a world pandemic and world war, many leadership strategies were needed to successfully combat the enemy. Most would agree that successful leaders are able to lead during times of crisis with careful, focused, humble and thoughtful organizational planning as well as creativity and optimism. This has been true throughout much of history, and we can often look to the past to prepare for the future. As the research will show, there are four tenets of leadership which were common in the successful planning by Churchill during World War II and that of university leaders who kept their campuses safe during the COVID-19 pandemic. In particular, the paper will examine how the University of New Hampshire’s administration used these 4 tenets to keep infection rates low and the campus operational during the 2020-2021 academic year. LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 5 Part of the challenges these two crises had in common were the lack of fear some in the community had to the threats posed. Some didn’t believe they would be affected by the threat, making it difficult to create a united front to overcome the enemy. Even though scientific research showed during the pandemic that quarantine, masking and social distancing were the means to prevent the spread, not everyone shared in those beliefs. These non-believers often allowed politics to dictate science aiding in the continued surge of infections. Similarly, the years leading to World War II, many dismissed Hitler and the Nazi regime as a threat to sovereignty even though he continued to break treaties. These non-believers wanted to appease Hitler and prevent a repeat of World War I. Leadership is challenging and no matter how those in power strive to communicate effectively, partner with those around for support, collaborate for the common good and lead through science, will never have complete and full support from all those who follow. However, without strong communication, partnerships, collaboration and advancements in technology, many more tragedies would have occurred during these crises and defeat more certain. It is widely understood that leadership can be found at all levels within organizations, in all industries and throughout many facets of life. One could argue that leadership can be found outside humans in the way animals follow the pack leader for strength and survival. Some great leaders’ tendencies may be innate; they may be born with an ability to understand people and create visions for others to follow. For most of us, leadership is a learned skill, which is developed over years of trial and error. In the article by James Kouzes and Barry Posner, “The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership”, Kouzes and Posner explain that: leadership is within all of us, and we should take on leadership challenges that are presented to us on a daily basis, and if we do that, we have the ability to be better at it.” (Kouzes & Posner, 2011). With most LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 6 challenges in life, the more experience we have, the better prepared we will be. Although some may be born as strong leaders all who lead should understand strategies around leadership to become better at it. Although World War II and COVID-19 happened decades apart, the leaders who responded to each, instituted strategies that were similar in scope. Not all leadership decisions were successful, and mistakes happened. As we reflect on these major events, learn from the leadership strategies imposed, we will become more prepared for the future. Both World War II and the COVID-19 pandemic required strong leadership, and the strategies employed should be used as roadmaps for future generations of leaders. Literature Review Winston Churchill - World War II There has been much written about Winston Churchill’s leadership and his commitments, attributes, and characteristics while leading England during World War II. Churchill never graduated from a university, but his wisdom, commitment and knowledge of great leadership unified a divided England and a reluctant United States into defeating the Axis Powers of Germany, Japan and Italy during World War II. His unique experiences contributed to his leadership style. As Hayword claims, “The four aspects that set him apart from ordinary politicians were candor and plain speaking, decisiveness, the ability to balance attention to details with a view of the wider scene, and a historical imagination that informed his judgment.” (Hayword, 2010). By most accounts, Churchill was an avant-garde politician and statesman, born into a life of public service and learned about leadership at a young age, but it was his LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 7 experiences of success and failures during his own life which contributed to his success in World War II. Although most literature focuses on his great achievements as a leader, some are critical toward decisions he made early in his political career. Many have blamed Churchill for the unnecessary loss of human lives in several battles throughout the early 1900’s. Churchill was a proliferate writer and wrote much about his encounters, and he developed leadership skills during these difficult times. In 1899, Churchill was captured during the Second Boer War in South Africa, but he escaped captivity. His writings about his ordeal inspired patriotism and made him a minor celebrity in Britain During early appointments in his political career, Churchill made several bad strategic War decisions costing many human lives, lessening his reputation as a strong leader when, in 1914, World War I broke out across Europe, Churchill was serving as First Lord of the Admiralty. Churchill was known to have negative views of the Ottoman Empire in Southeastern Europe. He as well as other English leaders decided to engage the Ottomans at Dardanelles and based their war strategy on the “ideas of European superiority and oriental weakness” (Dockter, 2012). What was thought to be a relatively easy battle for Britain and France, turned to a bloody battle forcing a full retreat of British and French forces. These poor leadership decisions forced Churchill from office and scarred his reputation as a strong leader According to a 1996 report about the lessons learned from the Dardanelles by Catherine M. McNally of the Naval War College explained why Churchill failed at Dardanelles. She believes it was because he didn’t understand: “the dangers of an inadequate military strategy; the perils of undertaking a major military operation without a sound operational plan; the barriers that exist to communication LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 8 between political and military leaders; and the danger of conditioned obedience as a cultural norm of the military services.” (McNally, 1996). This analysis by McNally underpins how, in the absence of strong leadership and clear communication, collaboration and proper planning can be disastrous to the outcomes of a mission. Churchill wrote to his wife Clementine about Dardanelles. “I should have made nothing if I had not made mistakes.” Churchill during the World War II always welcomed criticism of his leadership. He spoke to the House of Commons saying, “Criticism is always advantageous”. (Roberts, 2018) Churchill led diversified groups of English society in his efforts to find creative solutions to problems England faced during World War II. He utilized volunteers, scientists, business leaders to creatively fight the ongoing war. He also welcomed criticism requiring him to reflect upon past decisions. It can be surmised that his failures at Dardanelles contributed to his understanding of humble leadership and how he prepared and succeeded in defeating the Germany in World War II. Covid-19 Pandemic The COVID-19 virus first appeared in the United States in January of 2020 when the Center for Disease Control (CDC) announced the first person diagnosed. Scientists around the World, including the World Health Organization (WHO), were desperately trying to understand the virus and how it was transmitting from person to person. The virus was believed to originate in Wuhan, China, which by the end of January 2020 was under quarantine. Many Wuhan citizens died, and strict protocols were put into place. By this time, the virus had spread to other parts of the world. The virus was on its way. The WHO issued a global health emergency as the death LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 9 toll was climbing, and cases were growing exponentially. The United States began seeing a quick spread, prompting air travel restriction and other travel reductions. The United States understood it was moving toward a pandemic, and the WHO soon confirmed. Discussions about contingency plans were beginning across college campuses at the same time researchers and scientists began clinical trials on medications as well as investigating mitigation and other procedures to limit exposure. Many universities understood their need to limit person-to-person contact and the best way to do that was to shut down campuses, send students home, and switch to an online delivery platform. As Ihor Bondar, Anatolii Humenchuk, Yurii Horban, Liliia Honchar, and Oksana Koshelieva explain, “The COVID pandemic is another example of the shock impact on the market environment, which necessitates a change in the conceptual and innovative approaches of higher education institutions to the training of professionals.” (Bondar, et al., 2021) This was challenging for some students and faculty as online learning was a relatively new concept unfamiliar to many. Colleges began investing in online infrastructure, communication platforms and new grading rubrics allowing for students to finish their spring 2020 semester away from campus. Many higher education officials used similar strategies used by Churchill during the COVID-19 pandemic. Transparent and factual communication protocols were set and collaboration with the community and other stakeholders began to grow. Partnerships across academic disciplines were reimagined and advancement in science were developing with expanded testing protocols and mask mandates. Safety and threats to communities under such conditions require partnerships and alliances and the sharing of information, monetary funds, and supplies. This was true across universities and outside agencies which included humanitarian organization. These relationships were seen as a pragmatic approach to the COVID-19 crisis. LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 10 (Aluisio, et al, 2020) Communication to members of the community about sacrifice for the good of the community was of utmost importance. And understanding science and developing new technologies needed to be reimagined. As the pandemic raced across college communities worldwide in an unprecedented way, many university administrators needed to reinvent how higher education could be delivered in a safe and effective way that would allow for colleges to remain accessible. Pre-Covid-19, universities were already facing struggles with sinking finances, demographic challenges and all the while discounting college tuition to meet higher enrollment goals. University leaders were forced by COVID-19 to pull staff from their normal routine. They needed to unify faculty, students, and external constituents to face challenges and work together to support one another. These same groups also produced medical equipment, safe classroom spaces, quarantined residential halls, developed testing facilities and changed operations that supported remote work and learning. This was a war being fought against an unseen enemy. Universities came together and used their creative resources to solve COVID-19 related issues so they could continue their missions. Many colleges were able to keep campuses operating at a safe capacity. Not only was the COVID-19 pandemic a disruption to the education of students, it was also a disruption to all aspects of life for a university student. Large financial investments needed to be made in COVID-19 testing, communication, technology, and other mitigation procedures. Prorated refunds had to be issued to students for room and board charges after campuses closed. Many staff were sent to work from home leaving only essential staff to remain on campus. Maintenance and cleaning operations were increased leaving some universities to furlough nonessential staff to lower expenses. LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 11 Communication Churchill Communication Efforts During World War II I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat. -Winston Churchill During the beginning stages of World War II, there were many unknowns and fears among the people of Great Britain. The people of Great Britain feared they would enter a war destined to be a repeat World War I. The German forces were pushing through Europe with an obvious goal of ruling the continent. In 1938, Great Britain, France and Italy signed the Munich Agreement with the intent of appeasing Hitler and preventing another War across Europe. The Munich agreement seceded part of Czechoslovakia to Germany after Hitler threatened to unleash a war in Europe which would be a bloody and long war. (How Britain Hoped to Avoid War with Germany in the 1930’s, n.d). Many in Europe applauded the agreement and its prevention of another war. However, the next year, Germany broke the Munich Agreement by invading Poland, pushing Europe into World War II. Hitler wanted to rule, and the Munich Agreement was not going to stop that desire. By 1940, Prime Minster Neville Chamberlain resigned as opposition to his leadership and policies grew. King George VI, King of England, needed a change at the leadership level. He summoned Winston Churchill and appointed him Prime Minister. Churchill saw the invasion of Poland as the beginning of the end to England’s sovereignty and knew he needed to act. After Churchill’s appointment as Prime Minister by the King, Churchill addressed the House of Commons on May 13, 1940, giving the famous “Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat” speech: LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 12 I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat. We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many, many long months of struggle and of suffering. You ask, what is our policy? I will say it is to wage War by sea, land, and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us, to wage War against a monstrous tyranny never surpassed in the dark and lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: Victory. Victory at all costs—Victory in spite of all terror—victory, however long and hard the road may be, for without victory there is no survival.” Churchill believed in the power to inspire others to act was through strong communication. He understood it was necessary in winning the war. He was candid and honest about the struggles ahead, but he promised to work and give everything he had toward the fight, which was highlighted in his Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat speech. Churchill needed to convince the people of Great Britain to stand up, and fight against Hitler through an appeal to the personal responsibility of each citizen. When England was being hammered with bombs during the attack known as the Blitz, English officials were pushing propaganda to reassure the public. Churchill kept on with normal life and day to day routine, showing the English people he was a tireless worker. As Howells says: “Churchill’s stubborn unwillingness to let War disrupt normal life in England was broadly admired. Despite the many precautions required by the emergency, he himself was famously determined to maintain his day-to-day routine. By remaining in London whenever he expected a major raid, Churchill related to Londoners during the worst of the Blitz.” (Howells, 2013, p. 158) LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 13 Looking back on Churchill’s challenges during World War II he showed that clear, honest, and concise communication is important when leading through such challenging times. He typically crafted each message and was a master orator delivering speeches that he meticulously structured. Eric Larson describes how Churchill structured his speeches which “began with a sober assessment and transparent account followed with optimism and rational appraisal, then ended metaphorically bringing people out of their seat to do whatever it takes.” (Larson, 2020). In an effort to keep a segment of the English society engaged in the war effort, communication was of utmost important especially for those reluctant to change. Life in English society during the war changed and was often inconvenient for many. Food rationing and limits on products such as rubber for car tires were introduced but because of effective communication, instilling a belief Britain would succeed, citizens banded together, sacrificed to help win the war. This couldn’t be done without Churchill’s communication. Universities Communication Efforts During the Pandemic Universities leaders, like Churchill, understood that communication was important to ensure the safety and wellbeing for all who live, visit and work on campus. Safety protocols, expectations, and contingency plans were all crucial for campus safety during the pandemic. The development and execution of a multifaceted communication plan has driven much of the COVID-19 response for institutions who were successful in keeping their campuses operational. (DeDiemar, 2020) Aligning messages and systems within a university through each phase of a crisis should be integrated in daily campus routine but is often hindered by political, financial and sometimes resistant staff. (Moerschell & Novak, 2020) University campuses are like LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 14 sovereign nations, defending their borders for the safety and wellbeing of their community. Therefore, the responsibility of the administration is to guarantee that safety. A university can be viewed as a microcosm of society with the same characteristics. Strong leadership, like any organization or society, is important for its survival. Whether for a country or a university community, the need for inspiring, effective, and transparent communication across multiple platforms is important. Higher education leaders worked to convince students, faculty, and staff the importance of personal responsibility in containing the spread of the virus. As Mohlmon stated, “Communications seek to ‘normalize’ the situation and begin to shape an acceptable new narrative, to the extent that this is possible.” (Mohlmon, 2020). Wearing a mask and social distancing are not what university students typically expect when entering college, and it is not what upper-class students have learned about college social norms and expectations. Students are encouraged to meet new people and expand opportunities by getting involved. One of the many rewards of the college experience is developing friendships that last a lifetime. Universities had to curve these norms, restrict socialization and even quarantine those who failed to adapt risking further spread of the virus. This was for many a 180-degree reversal from normal college life before the pandemic. Many university officials faced a dilemma in communicating these new expectations to varied constituencies. The messages had to be encouraging enough to maintain enrollment but also set a tone for acceptable behavior. Coupling these new expectations with skyrocketing education costs, students began to reconsider the value of attending college, adding greater pressure to the communication efforts. LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 15 University administrators needed to be cautious in crafting their messages to constituents as fear of close contact with others dominated headlines across the world. Early in the pandemic, university students were thirsty for the latest information. Mohlman and Basch explain: “Due to the sudden upheaval of the early phase of the pandemic, college students were in need of specific information and guidance and looked to their universities for direction on how to proceed.” (Mohlman & Basch, 2021) They go on to state, “The response from national leadership lacked clarity and direction, so university administrators needed to send clear messages about the university’s response.” Communication about changes in behavior was necessary in stopping the spread of the virus. Noar and Austin ask how this can be achieved. “While a unified, national campaign would have been ideal for setting the communication agenda for the country, in the absence of this, state and local officials, public health organizations, and other entities such as colleges and universities can and must fill the communication void.” (Noar & Austin, 2020). Colleges faced similar challenges to Churchill as they needed to communicate the importance of maintaining a normal life and encouraging students to stay the course and continue toward their degree. Administrators not only had to maintain some sense of normalcy and remain open but also to convince students that campuses would be safe during the pandemic. Universities worked to encourage those who wanted to withdraw or defer their enrollment to believe the university was doing everything possible to maintain a safe environment. Colleges invested in moving most classes to an online delivery method but also had to develop social distancing protocols as some classes, especially those with labs, could maintain in person instruction. This change was especially challenging for some faculty who were often set in their ways and reluctant to adopting new methods. The University of Massachusetts lost nearly $170 million from its operating budget; fortunately for many universities, the federal government LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 16 provided $14 billion in emergency relief for the higher education community through the Cares Act, much less than experts suggested but better than nothing. (Carlson, Gardner, 2020). During the COVID-19 pandemic, many governments failed to provide a strong and consistent national message like the one Churchill provided, effecting many lives and continuing the pandemic. Many universities across the country recognized this and developed communication strategies for their communities. Collaboration Churchill’s Collaboration During World War II Often, organizations need strong allies to overcome calamities that affect their stability. These allies are often necessary for victory but are not easy to maintain with differing political, social, cultural differences and varying interests. With the war raging in Europe and Churchill desperately looking for allies to join the effort in defeating Germany, Churchill set out to persuade other nations, specifically the United States and Russia, to join forces. France had been defeated, and Italy had become more of a threat. Joining together with the United States and Russia was not an easy task for Churchill. The relationship between these three superpowers had many challenges. Political, social and strategic differences as well as communication and other coordinating challenges. According to De Lamar Jensen: “The differences in traditions, motives, philosophy, organization, and resources were enormous and at times appear insurmountable. Yet the common threat of Nazism was so LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 17 great and so immediate that a working coalition eventually brought an end to one form of totalitarian dictatorship.” (Jensen, 1962, p.2). Churchill once said, “The only thing worse than having allies is not having them.” (Chequers, 1945) What Churchill believed was that to save England and the future of his country, he needed to set aside much of his ego to collaborate with other countries, specifically the United States and Russia, against Nazi Germany. Many concessions in land disputes were made by Churchill and the United States to Russia in return keeping the alliance from breaking. This was a will in leadership. Joseph Raelin explains, “Compassionate leaders do not seek to control or to awe others because of some unmet ego needs. Transcending their own ego identity, they seek to elevate others so that the whole community can benefit” (Raelin, 2003 p. 206). Churchill understood this to be true from the onset of the war and because of his willingness to set aside differences he helped bring the community and allies together to defeat Germany. University COVID-19 Collaboration Many university leaders also understand the importance of strong allies when it came to conquering the Coronavirus pandemic that spread through most institutions throughout the world. Many college campuses were closing much of their operations, moving to online learning environments, and putting many projects on hold. These changes, many detrimental to the college community were to keep people safe. Emma Whitfield of Insidehighereducaiton.com surveyed schools and found “87 percent reported falling auxiliary services revenue, which included revenue from athletics or theater events, catering, rented space for weddings or conferences, and a host of LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 18 other college side gigs.” (Whitfield, 2021). Navigating this crisis, universities were already partnering with other colleges and local communities to overcome the challenges of the times; Covid-19 strengthened these partnerships, and the future will determine how those alliances last. Jenna Joo, Jeffrey Selingo and Rayane Alamuddin observed: “Higher education focused networks oriented around the cross-cutting problems of improving student success and social mobility, enacting structural and cultural change, and managing overlapping organizational responsibilities. These networks develop and strengthen enduring relationships that iteratively generate new ideas and processes to tackle the most pressing postsecondary problems of our times” (Joo, et al., 2019). Ideas about collaborative efforts across institutions began to develop, and networks were established. Ideas from such networks include online teaching of similar courses across institutions. Collaboration between institutions increased research ventures, purchasing power, and opportunities for students. These partnerships were a collaborative effort already in motion prior to COVID-19. Jeff Selingo and Martin Kurzweil believe that: “Changing demographics and finances were already challenging many institutions before the coronavirus. Many were searching for a sustainable strategy that would allow them to continue pursuing their educational missions and serve as engines of opportunity for its students. This crisis only adds to the risks facing many colleges and universities and their students. The networking and collaborative infrastructure institutions build now could not only help them to survive this moment but also thrive in the future.” (Selingo, Kurzweil 2020) LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 19 Partnerships Churchill’s Partnerships Winston Churchill had an uphill battle in convincing America to join forces with Great Britain, Poland and France to defeat Nazi Germany. A poll conducted by Gallop in 1939 showed a reluctant American attitude about getting involved in the War in Europe. Americans were much more accepting of providing supplies such as food and airplanes but were not prepared to send armed service men to the fight overseas. This poll showed an 84% disapproval rating. (Reinhart, 2019). This reluctance from the Americans meant that Churchill needed to persuade the Americans to join the fight and work on developing a partnership. (See chart #1) Winston Churchill needed to keep his community safe during the repeated bombings of England during the war. Churchill is credited for being defiant against Germany, and he found ways to lift the nation and will them into resisting by continuing to sacrifice for the war effort and not give up. Churchill understood how symbolic acts could lift the spirts of many. He was brave, confronted the enemy through speech, writings and acts such as staying in London during the war and going to the scenes of horrific bombings, standing over the rubble and speaking to the people. Keeping the English people safe took more than just one person; it was a community effort inspired by great leadership. Many precautions and plans were in place for the English people, such as evacuation plans, air raid plans, recruitment efforts of men between 18-41, rationing as well as many other protocols. Table 1 Gallup Poll of United States Citizens support in assisting England, Sept. 1-6, 1939 LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 20 Evacuation plans were both small and large. Some included how women and children would be evacuated, and some had the government planning on evacuating millions of citizens. Air raid preparations were some of the most important as these posed the greatest risk. These plan required partnership between the English government and the English people. Germany was relentless in bombing England and many preparations to counter the dangers of these air raids meant that sacrifices had to be made. Blackouts took place so the enemy had a tough time spotting densely populated areas, and civil defense units were established to help with fire prevention and ambulatory care. Such planning on behalf of England required collaboration and clear communication to execute. These new norms for the way of life in Britain was needed if the country were to survive the war. Similarly, with COVID-19 restrictions, great planning and contingency plans were necessary for universities to stay open and for the population to stay safe. University Covid-19 Partnerships Similarly, universities needed to be persuasive, and Covid-19 revealed to university officials the importance of partnerships and shared leadership. This shared leadership model LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 21 required staff over many disciplines to work together, lead in their specific area and not rely on the direction from a position leader. This change was a new paradigm of relationships and trust among many. As Kesar and Holcombe state, “Conditions that promote and sustain shared leadership include team empowerment, supportive vertical or hierarchical leaders, autonomy, shared purpose or goal, external coaching, accountability structures, interdependence, fairness of rewards, and shared cognition”. (Kesar, Holcombe, 2017) We often hear of groups pitted against one another battling over tight budgets and self- declaration of market and intrinsic university value. Resource allocation in higher education is a struggle for administrators as William Massy states: “While resource allocation boiled down to knowledgeable people making informed decisions, the record shows that process – the way decisions are made and communicated-powerfully affects outcomes” (Massy, 1996). Collaboration includes the ability to bring research and teaching together, to help departments teach across curriculums and rely less on hierarchy and autonomy. It required learning to work on teaching methods that include both online and in-classroom access. Collaboration with state and local governments was important as to serve the values and needs of the community. Societies need universities to continue their missions for the good of society. Regardless of the war, these services for the good of society need to continue. For higher education leaders, many students face the fear of returning to school where densely populated classrooms, dormitories and common space were known to spread COVID more easily. This fear forced leaders to find ways to lower class sizes, curtail social gatherings and find bed space to house students at safe distances. Many institutions worked to implement LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 22 policies that were acceptable to students and families. Difficulties in convincing students that returning was safe, and the education was worth was challenging for university leaders. Making this effort more challenging was the need to move to online education. Skeptics feared online education was not as strong as in-person learning, so it financially should not cost the same. “Although the risk of severe health outcomes from COVID-19 in young adults without underlying health conditions is relatively low, faculty, university staff, and close contacts of college students at home and in the community might be at a considerably higher risk for severe illness and death if they were to become infected.” (Walke et.al. 2020). It was paramount that universities find ways to partner to continue the education of their students but do it in a way that prevented the spread of the virus. Technology Churchill’s World War II Technology Winston Churchill believed in the power of science and technology to overcome Hitler and the Axis powers during World War II. New challenges, no matter the enemy, demand innovative strategies to overcome the present threat as well as increase productivity and advance the economy. A 2014 report by the Government Chief Scientific Advisor reports that: “Advances in science and technology can yield societal benefits and drive economic growth.” “Technological improvements will increase productivity by as much as 25% and will generate a predicted $3.7 to $10.8 trillion for the World economy by 2025”. (Annual Report of the Government Chief Scientific Adviser 2014. Innovation: Managing risk, Not Avoiding It, 2014). Churchill understood the benefits of advances in technology during World War II and understood that to advance the War effort he needed to embrace the power of science and LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 23 technology. Churchill appointed data scientists to study data about the war, technologists to develop radar capabilities; and he supported the nuclear program with the partnership of the United States. Churchill also thought of new ideas such as developing more advanced tanks, “sticky bomb” technology that could attach to enemy tanks and an idea he called “aerial mines” that were explosives that hung in the air to prevent enemy aircraft from safely flying over England to drop bombs. Air Chief Marshal Arthur Harris asked, “Are we fighting this War with weapons or slide rules?” to which Churchill replied, “Let’s try Slide Rules”. (Livio, 2017). “And yet his fancies were not entirely foolish. He stubbornly supported the development of Hobart's Funnies, weird military contraptions. These included swimming tanks that would float on inflatable canvas water wings as they were unleashed from the landing craft, and then make their way ashore. (Other specialized tanks were equipped with flails for mine clearing.) Some Americans dismissed this as another piece of pointless Churchillian cleverness. Yet the tanks' presence helped explain why the British and Canadian advances on the morning of D Day went more smoothly than that of the Americans. (Fisher, 2020) Churchill knew early on that World War II was a war that would be fought like no previous war. His observations of the horrific trench warfare of the first World War led to his beliefs that technology could help prevent such atrocities. He believed the development of the tank would help offset such inhumane battles. “Churchill could see the futility and horrendous slaughter of trench Warfare, and he turned his mind to possible alternatives to sending the army to “chew barbed wire in Flanders” (Hayward, 1997). Many ideas and prototypes of fitting cars with armor that could carry guns were developed to override barriers in the fields. There was no time during LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 24 the War to debate such needs, and Churchill knew a certain balancing act must occur for strategic planning between appropriate guidance toward a common vision and not hindering progress that is harmful toward innovation. (Lenz, Lyles, 1985). Campbell and Alexander made the point “We are confounded by process. Objectives are intertwined with strategy and with implementation in a way that makes it difficult for an organization to decide where to start. Such confusion about where to begin causes planning paralysis.” (Campbell, Alexander, 1997) Churchill invested in this development, used admiralty funds for these projects as he understood the needs of such vehicles. “Churchill used the full measure of his influence, authority and persuasive power to promote innovations and changes. He sought highly skilled and forceful subordinates to execute his designs (Hayward, 1997). Universities Technology During COVID-19 University leaders can learn from Churchill, “As a manager or leader, we need to be committed to the continual process or pursuit of wisdom found in the study of stronger thinking so that we weigh belief and reason more accurately, focus more on the end result of truth, consider potential costs of our thinking, avoid delusions that encourage us to make mistakes and more carefully and diligently analyze important data in front of us”. (Brooks, 2013). University leadership understood the power of innovation, science and technology during the Covid Pandemic. Universities quickly moved to set up protocols and facilities to test for COVID-19 and volunteered educational capital, such as research scientists to help develop a vaccine. New methods and technology for teaching needed to be adopted. For such innovations and new ways of teaching, strategic planning became essential as it creates focus, coordinates action throughout the university, increases productivity with better time management and inserts control with LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 25 viable objectives. Setting such a vision for the university and giving a sense of direction for all constituents was needed during this time of Covid-19 crisis. Also, universities contributed to the war against Covid-19 by providing thousands of gallons of hand sanitizer, personal protective equipment, instructions for making face shields and low-cost ventilators for emergency use. Officials collected data in the effort to forecast the virus. Georgia Tech university website states “We’re about the solutions. together, we can do this.” (Georgia Tech, n.d.). To ensure proper screening for students attending in person classes on university campuses across the country, many schools needed to invest in new technology that would help monitor and track the health and well-being of all staff and student populations. The University of Idaho spent $90,000 in screening technology; they put in stations across campus that would measure the body temperatures of students like a metal detector at an airport. However, many administrators were skeptical as they caught very few of the students who had elevated temperatures. (NY Times, 2021). At Oakland University in Michigan, wearable technology called the “Bio-Button”, a small device that sticks to the skin of a person near the upper chest, was used to collect heart rate, skin temperature and respiratory rates while at rest. The device would alert the user if it determined abnormal results. (Burke, 2020). Some technology incorporated smart cell phone applications that would track a user's movement and identify any individual who may have been in close contact with people having symptoms. This was a new technology to support contact tracing efforts. Like Churchill during World War II, universities were struggling with convincing those skeptical of the usefulness of new technology because some relatively new technology like temperature guns, were proving to be inaccurate. Many LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 26 institutions were trying to implement changes simultaneously in both technology and policies while desperately trying to stop the spread and fend off skepticism. Advancement in scientific fields were a necessity for England in World War II as well as fighting the Covid-19 Pandemic is for universities. Continuing these pursuits can only be accomplished by keeping educational institutions open and students learning. Regardless of the methods used in development, advances require an educated work force making education important for the safety and future of societies. Methods This qualitative comparative paper set out to find similarities between Churchill’s leadership strategies used during World War II and those used by college administrators during the Covid-19 pandemic. The methods used in this research paper were conducted using secondary data published by the University of New Hampshire. This published data was compared with guidelines by the American College Health Association on COVID-19 suggested protocols and data collected from articles and journal at the UNH library and Granite State College Library about Churchill’s World War II leadership. Terms used in searches: COVID-19, College and University COVID-19 communication, collaboration, technology, Churchill Leadership. LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 27 Results/Research There are striking similarities between Winston Churchill’s Leadership strategies used during World War II and those used by university administrators during the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, The University of New Hampshire had to strategically move away from normal operations and invest financially in the battle against COVID-19. The research shows that UNH was able to follow and implement many of the American College Health Association (ACHA) guidelines for effective COVID response using communication, collaboration, partnerships and technology as strategies. Beginning in the spring of 2020, UNH had refunded upward of 30 million dollars to students for future room and board charges after sending students home for the semester early. (Dean, 2020). Travel, hiring and purchases were suspended as the administration navigated the unknown of the aftermath of the financial loss. Implementation of protocols were essential in preventing the spread of COVID-19 throughout campus and many universities across the world did not have the resources to implement all guidelines. Fortunately, UNH, as a state school, had better resources to plan for many potential scenarios. It was important that UNH understood that students living and working in close quarters were at a greater risk of spreading the virus, so it was vitally important to heed the advice of the ACHA. It was made clear that these protocols would remain in place for many months or until sufficient herd immunity was achieved through vaccination. In the late spring of 2020, the ACHA put out guidelines for colleges and universities that stressed the importance of collaboration with state and local health officials. Universities “vary in geographic location, size and structure” so each schools protocols may differ, but the general recommended guidelines should be followed. These guidelines included many of the tenets argued in this paper in way of promotion of good behaviors, collaboration with state and LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 28 local health officials, partnership with outside organizations, as well as limiting classroom seats, encouraging a distance of 6 feet apart, testing and contact tracing strategies. Campuses were encouraged to centralize an incident command center that partnered with local officials. Personal protective equipment, enhanced cleaning and quarantine housing for those infected as well as the support structure for those in quarantine. In March of 2020, the New York Times reported over 535,000 cases had been traced to college campuses with 120,000 linked directly to American universities. At this point in the pandemic there were more than 100 deaths involving college students and college employees reported. (NY Times, 2021). Much effort was given to communication strategies, partnerships, collaboration with the UNH community and advances in technology to contain the spread of the virus so universities remained operational. From July 29, 2020, through May 23, 2021, the University of New Hampshire’s COVID-19 positivity rate was less than 1% with over 704,000 tests performed (Table 3). Student were required to take a test every four days. (University of New Hampshire, 2020) UNH retained this data in a secure database and published cumulative results frequently to keep the community up to date with data on any local outbreaks. Table 3 UNH Weekly COVID Positivity Trend July 2020- June 2021 LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 29 These numbers made it essential for UNH to understand where to focus resources and work together finding ways to contain the virus at each campus location. In January of 2021, UNH’s President James Dean asked all university constituents to sign a voluntary pledge acknowledging personal responsibility in containing the spread of COVID- 19. President Dean said the pledge, “confirms your commitment to participate in regular COVID-19 testing and follow all federal, state and university public health protocols around physical distancing, face coverings and gatherings.” (Dean, 2021). This pledge was sent in partnership with the UNH campaign: #unhtogether which advocated for UNH community health and safety. This pledge provided a central location for all community members to show their efforts in the fight against COVID-19 by posting pictures and comments about response efforts. Easily accessible information was available to the community through the UNH centralized Covid website and the #unhtogether campaign which helped with messaging. By lessening barriers to information made participating in the community effort less difficult and encouraged participation. Communication about testing, test kits and testing schedules as well as the ability to upload health information and online telemedicine appointments were also developed. UNH administration convened several town meetings during the pandemic that outlined the current data on the spread of COVID-19, preventative measures taken by officials and allowed participants an opportunity to ask questions. Having online town hall style discussions with members of the administration and from Health and Human Services staff open further lines of communication. For UNH to be successful in defeating the COVID-19 pandemic, leaders new that technology would be a major factor in understanding how the virus was moving throughout LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 30 campus and aid in developing ways to prevent it’s spread, communicate to students and form partnerships with various community members. Based upon the average positivity rate, there is no doubt that frequent testing helped lower the risk of a widespread outbreak on campus as to contain further spread. The UNH lab which has the capacity to perform certified RT-PCR COVID diagnostic testing of 72,000 tests a week. (Public Access to UNH COVID Testing Lab. Retrieved from: n.d.). Marc Sedam, Vice Provost for Innovation and New Ventures at the University of New Hampshire said, “We don’t have a med school, we don’t have a veterinary school, don’t have a pharmacy school, we actually didn’t have a reason to think that we should be able to do this accept we’re in New Hampshire and we do stuff knowing that it needs to be done.” (University of New Hampshire, 2021) UNH mandated COVID- 19 testing for any on campus visit or activity and those who did not comply would be forwarded to the community standards office and possibly sent home. This was especially important in monitoring COVID-19 asymptomatic people. The university was able to quarantine those who tested positive and stop the spread sooner. Testing kits were made available, and students were required to be tested every four days. Testing was confidential and only made available to the State of New Hampshire and UNH’s Health and Human Services. Information on how to complete the test and drop off receptacles were placed around campus for students, staff and faculty to drop off tests. The UNH state of the art testing facility was able to process the needed capacity to allow for continuing with the educational mission of the university, students had front line access and real-world experience in handling a pandemic. Because of the aggressive testing, UNH was able to keep the infection rate below 1% and keep the campus operational all year, not having to close campus facilities and send students home. LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 31 UNH also made efforts to simplify student’s movement throughout campus by developing a phone application called “Wildcat Pass”. This application was a way of keeping track of student’s compliance with university policy regarding Covid-19 and would show color coded symbols to let them and others know of compliance. Should a student not comply, the pass would text message the student a notification so measures could be taken to rectify the issue. The Wildcat pass was another way of simplifying efforts and increasing communication efforts to the UNH community. UNH set up a Health and Wellness portal to send and receive information increasing its communication effort. Sending information about vaccination cards and how to receive test results was important. This portal was also used provide information and messages about individual testing results. The portal allows students, staff and faculty to upload proof of vaccination cards to reduce required testing. Table 2 Summer 2021, Spring semester 2021 and Fall/Winter 2020-2021 COVID testing results LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 32 Conclusion It is widely known there is a strong correlation between effective leadership and the results produced by the team being led. Successful leaders who effectively lead during a time of crisis will result in way of profitability, outcomes and overall customer satisfaction. Winston Churchill demonstrated many leadership tenets that led to several significant successful outcomes during the crises of World War II. Elements of his leadership can be traced in the actions of higher education administrators who have been successful in leading their institutions through the crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic. Learning from past success will help future leaders in time of crisis. World War II and the Covid-19 pandemic were decades apart but the leadership lessons hold true today proving that leadership knows no color, race, or creed. Leadership tenets focused on in this paper prove that communication, partnership, collaboration and advancement in technology don’t age, remain relevant over time and can be used as a roadmap for future leaders. As University of New Hampshire leadership and Winston Churchill proved, leading others is challenging, requires self-confidence, self-reflection and a desire to improve the situation around them. These leadership desires are the building blocks for great leadership. Winston Churchill understood during World War II to communicate better one must listen and articulate their point clearly and concisely so the receiver of the information understands the objective. Decisions had to be made, plans created all while considering each barrier that might hinder progress. Miscommunications can result in assumptions that if we speak clearly and make other people listen; all will agree. Because a group speaks the same LEDERSHIP STRATEGIES DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 33 language doesn’t mean all interpret meaning the same. (Cloke & Goldsmith, 2011 p 30) nor does it mean we will all agree. University of New Hampshire officials understood that communicating to the campus community was important. Most universities are diverse with thoughts and opinions making communication across multiple platforms important in sending a clear message. As Pang explains, effective leaders with good communication skills must also understand existing institutional infrastructures and norms. (Pang, 2020) which was true at the University of New Hampshire. Leaders need to inspire and as Jeffery Martin and Russell Marion explain, “The Leader has tremendous control over the knowledge-processing environment and the role of leadership has broader influence than the resolution of knowledge gaps.” (Martin, Marion, 2005) thus, effective leaders will work toward greater knowledge to solve a problem as well as use various platforms to deliver the message to a broad audience. Collaboration and partnership were important in attaining resources and the advancement in technology helped to develop solutions to the ongoing threat. 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